The Battle of Stalingrad
In July 1942 Hitler suddenly ordered the seizure of the city of Stalingrad (now named Volgograd). Hitler’s rationale was purely one of personal prestige, as the city had little strategic or tactical value for Germany. Hitler wanted to capture it because it was Stalin’s city, and so the battle symbolized in many ways the conflict between the two leaders. Throughout September, October, and into early November, German troops battled street-by-street, and often house-by-house, in trying to take the city. The Soviet army clung tenaciously to its defense of the city.
In July 1942 Hitler suddenly ordered the seizure of the city of Stalingrad (now named Volgograd). Hitler’s rationale was purely one of personal prestige, as the city had little strategic or tactical value for Germany. Hitler wanted to capture it because it was Stalin’s city, and so the battle symbolized in many ways the conflict between the two leaders. Throughout September, October, and into early November, German troops battled street-by-street, and often house-by-house, in trying to take the city. The Soviet army clung tenaciously to its defense of the city.
Since the first German assaults in September, Soviet military officials had been planning a massive counterattack codenamed Operation Uranus. They continued to feed just enough troops into the city itself to maintain a foothold there, but built up a massive force around Stalingrad that would be used to encircle the German Sixth Army inside Stalingrad. On November 19, those forces were unleashed against the weak Romanian forces protecting the German flanks. Within twenty-four hours, Soviet armored units had smashed the Romanian lines both north and south of the city. By November 24, Soviet forces had completely encircled the city, thereby cutting off the Sixth Army from reinforcement and supply. The German response was muddled and motivated primarily by Hitler’s personal feelings. Rather than allow the army to retreat when there was still the opportunity, Hitler ordered them to stand fast. Herman Goering, the head of the Luftwaffe, made an assurance that the army could be supplied solely by airdrops—something that was not a realistic option—and this bolstered Hitler’s decision.
Beginning in January 1943, Soviet forces began their assault against German forces in Stalingrad. Despite their dire situation, it is impressive that the German forces managed to check the Soviet advance for five days. But, by January 15, 1943, the Soviets had begun to crack through the German defenses. By January 31, German forces in the southern part of the city had surrendered, and two days later, the last German forces in the city fell. The cost of the battle was immense both sides in terms of material and manpower. Nearly 147,000 Germans and Romanians died during the Battle of Stalingrad while another 91,000 became prisoners. Soviet losses were even greater, with estimates as high as 500,000 during the battle. Soviet estimates of casualties go as high as 1,100,000 dead, wounded, or missing. Estimates of Axis casualties are also high: around 800,000 and above. Despite the immense Soviet losses, Stalingrad turned the balance of the war permanently in favor of the Soviet Union on the Eastern Front. From this point forward, Soviet forces began a relentless offensive assault that would not stop until the war’s end in April 1945.
The Battle of the Atlantic
The Battle of the Atlantic was the struggle between the British and the Americans to keep safe the crucial shipping lanes of the Atlantic Ocean against the naval forces of Germany. The battle passed through four distinct phases: first, between September 1939 and June 1940 German submarines operated only in the waters around Great Britain itself; second, from June 1940 to April 1941, German forces focused on the eastern Atlantic to stop the flow of supplies and men to Britain along the coast of western and southern Africa; third, from April to December 1941, German submarines began to extend their patrols into the central and western parts of the Atlantic; and forth, after December 1941, German submarines began operating off the coast of the United States.
The Battle of the Atlantic was the struggle between the British and the Americans to keep safe the crucial shipping lanes of the Atlantic Ocean against the naval forces of Germany. The battle passed through four distinct phases: first, between September 1939 and June 1940 German submarines operated only in the waters around Great Britain itself; second, from June 1940 to April 1941, German forces focused on the eastern Atlantic to stop the flow of supplies and men to Britain along the coast of western and southern Africa; third, from April to December 1941, German submarines began to extend their patrols into the central and western parts of the Atlantic; and forth, after December 1941, German submarines began operating off the coast of the United States.
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1942 proved to be the turning point in the fight between the forces; Germany inflicted great losses on Allied shipping. Nearly three hundred German submarines were in operation. By early 1943, however, Allied shipyards were producing enough new ships to make up for the losses. More importantly, German losses began to rise to a rate of fifteen per month, equaling the number of new submarines Germany was producing each month. Also, British codebreakers were becoming more adept at breaking German naval codes, allowing them to reroute Allied ships out of danger. Most importantly, however, the introduction of long-range aircraft, in particular the B-24 Liberator bomber, which proved to be a deadly foe for German submarines. By May 1943, German leaders came to the conclusion that the Battle of the Atlantic had been lost and withdrew what remained of the German fleet from the region.
German Retreat in the East
The collapse of Stalingrad signaled a weakening of the German position on the Eastern Front, but it did not mean the collapse of the front. In the summer of 1943, German army planned an attack on the Soviet city of Kursk that it named Operation Citadel. The Germans were hoping that such an attack would slow the Soviets. However, the latter had carried out a massive fortification program of Kursk during late winter and early spring when the Germans, unable to travel the muddy fields, temporarily halted the attack. The Battle of Kursk was among the largest battles fought in human history, with the Germans deploying 435,000 men, 9,960 artillery pieces, and 3,155 tanks. The Soviets brought one million soldiers, 13,013 artillery pieces, and 3,275 tanks along with reserves totaling close to 500,000 men and 1,500 tanks.
The collapse of Stalingrad signaled a weakening of the German position on the Eastern Front, but it did not mean the collapse of the front. In the summer of 1943, German army planned an attack on the Soviet city of Kursk that it named Operation Citadel. The Germans were hoping that such an attack would slow the Soviets. However, the latter had carried out a massive fortification program of Kursk during late winter and early spring when the Germans, unable to travel the muddy fields, temporarily halted the attack. The Battle of Kursk was among the largest battles fought in human history, with the Germans deploying 435,000 men, 9,960 artillery pieces, and 3,155 tanks. The Soviets brought one million soldiers, 13,013 artillery pieces, and 3,275 tanks along with reserves totaling close to 500,000 men and 1,500 tanks.
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Kursk was the deathblow to German capabilities in the East. By October 1943, the Soviets had forced German troops off Russian soil and into Ukraine. The defensive position of the Germans became untenable in face of overwhelming Soviet military presence.